This week marks our fundraising initiative at Naked Capitalism. So far, 995 supporters have contributed to our mission of fighting corruption and predatory practices, especially within the financial sector. We invite you to participate through our donation page, detailing various options for contributions via check, credit card, debit card, PayPal, Clover, or Wise. Learn more about the reasons behind this fundraiser, our achievements over the past year, and our current objectives, including bonuses for our esteemed writers.
Greetings, this is Yves. This article offers valuable insights into Pakistan’s history with an emphasis on its political landscape. However, it notably overlooks the assassination of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, who had returned from a decade in exile amidst a contentious political landscape. Many may view her murder as a pivotal event in Pakistan’s trajectory, yet it appears the author does not share this perspective. The focus is largely on internal matters, potentially neglecting the complex dynamics between Pakistan and India.
We encourage readers to share their thoughts on this omission and any other observations.
By Dr. Vladislav B. Sotirovic, Ex-University Professor, Research Fellow at Centre for Geostrategic Studies Belgrade, Serbia
Overview of Pakistan
Pakistan is situated in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It shares borders with Iran to the west, Afghanistan to the north-west, China to the north-east, and India to the east, providing direct access to the Arabian Sea.
Geographically, it is separated from the rest of Asia by the formidable mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and the Himalayas in the north. Descending from these highlands are several ranges extending toward the Arabian Sea, alongside the extensive and fertile Indus River valley. The North-West Frontier Province is home to the strategically crucial Khyber Pass. In the south lies the Punjab plateau, known for its wheat production due to the tributaries of the Indus River. However, the eastern part features the Thar Desert. Significantly, there are large reserves of natural gas and some oil nestled between the Sind Desert, which occupies part of the Indus delta, and the mountainous regions of Baluchistan. Punjab also hosts oil reserves.
Pakistan’s economy is primarily agrarian, centered on the production and export of raw and processed cotton, cotton textiles, and rice. Other noteworthy agricultural products include sugar cane, wheat, and maize, with livestock farming playing a crucial role as well. The textile industry significantly contributes to exports and overall industrial performance, alongside other sectors including chemicals, cement production, fertilizers, and food processing.
Demographics
Approximately 88% of Pakistan’s population comprises Pakistani Muslims, while about 11% identifies as Indian (Hindu). Among various ethnicities, Baluchistanis represent the largest group. Baluchistan, however, remains the least populated province. Following the partition of British India in 1947, Pakistan established a largely Muslim demographic, receiving many Indian Muslims while India gained Hindus. The period from 1947 to 1950 witnessed significant population exchanges, involving millions and instances of ethnic cleansing in both directions. The official language of Pakistan is Urdu, which has supplanted English since 1972; other regional languages also flourish. Notably, around 80% of the population was illiterate in 1970, leading to a shortage of trained professionals, particularly in administration and economy.
To tackle this educational crisis, a policy in September 1972 led to the nationalization of 176 private colleges. At that time, Pakistan had just three universities. Roughly 15% of the population resided in urban areas, with cities exceeding 100,000 inhabitants. Islamabad is now the capital, having replaced Rawalpindi in 1959, while Karachi was the largest city until then. Presently, Pakistan boasts a population of 251 million within an area of 881,913 square kilometers, with a GDP of $373 billion and a per capita GDP nearing $1,500.
Political Structure
The partition of British India on August 15th, 1947, led to the formation of Pakistan as a dominion. By the February 29th, 1956 constitution, it transitioned into the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, initially consisting of two federal entities: West and East Pakistan.
The military coup in October 1958 abolished this constitution, with a new one introduced in March 1962. This document established a federal structure along with a presidential governance system, requiring the president to be Muslim, elected for a five-year term. It also created a National Assembly with 156 deputies, evenly representing the two federal units, and designated Islamabad (West Pakistan) as the central government seat and Dhaka (East Pakistan) as the National Assembly seat. However, the 1962 constitution was repealed in March 1969, only to be partially restored a month later.
A pivotal moment in Pakistan’s history occurred in December 1971 when East Pakistan seceded, declaring itself the independent state of Bangladesh. As a result, the new Pakistan comprised solely former West Pakistan territories. Pakistan departed from the British Commonwealth in January 1972.
A Brief Historical Overview of Pakistan Before 1947
Pakistan fell under British colonial rule during the first half of the 19th century, becoming part of Greater British India. The name “Pakistan” derives from the Urdu words meaning “Land of the Pure” and also serves as an acronym for its major ethnic groups: Punjabis, Afghans, Kashmirs, Sindhis, and Baluchistanis.
In the early 20th century, the movement for independence began to take shape. A contributing factor was the higher socio-economic status that individuals from Punjab and Kashmir enjoyed under British rule, holding key positions within the administration and military. Amid this backdrop, the Muslim cultural and political identity started to coalesce, largely driven by reformers and organizations such as the Muslim League, established on December 30th, 1906, in Dacca. The League’s original aim was to secure separate Muslim representation across all levels of government, advocating for the rights and needs of Muslims within British India.
Under the leadership of Jinnah, the Muslim League laid out demands for increased rights for Indian Muslims, who accounted for roughly one-quarter of the population. As the Indian National Congress accelerated its momentum towards self-governance led by M. Gandhi, these demands increasingly intensified during the 1930s. Initially, the Muslim League sought both improved self-governing rights from the British and better entitlements for Muslims within this structure. They joined forces with the INC in the Lucknow Pact of December 1916, but experienced limited effectiveness during the 1920s when their ranks numbered merely around 1,000 in all of British India. This setback propelled a reevaluation of their objectives in the 1930s, allowing them to attract a broader Muslim base.
In 1930, the League first articulated the vision of a separate Muslim state in western British India at its annual conference. This plea gained traction, particularly following their dismal performance in the 1937 elections, garnering only 104 out of 489 Muslim seats. Jinnah aimed to expand their appeal, leading to the official ratification of the demand for a separate Muslim state in the Pakistan Resolution of March 23rd, 1940. This resolution warned that should Muslims’ situations, particularly in minority areas, not improve, they would claim separate homelands. It referenced both the western provinces of British India and East Bengal. By 1944, the League could count over 2 million members. The results of the 1945-1946 elections saw the League secure 75% of the Muslim vote, giving them a mandate that ultimately culminated in the creation of Pakistan on August 15th, 1947. However, following Jinnah’s death, the League, lacking a coherent leadership, fragmented into various factions over the subsequent decade.
South Asia’s diverse ethnic and regional dynamics have long been a source of conflict. The Indian government’s promotion of Hindi encountered resistance, leading to demands for states based on linguistic lines. Beginning in the 1950s, state boundaries began to shift, reflecting these linguistic rivalries. Just prior to 1947, the area designated as Pakistan emerged from British India, aiming to consolidate predominantly Muslim territories following British withdrawal. Initial attempts to unify Pakistan’s provinces faced resistance, leading to the reestablishment of traditional provincial boundaries in 1970. Meanwhile, East Pakistan’s Bengalis sought greater autonomy, fueled by their cultural depth and discontent with the dominance of the West Pakistani elite.
The Partition of 1947
As no consensus emerged on a unified path to independence, the partition of the Indian subcontinent became necessary. Muslim-majority areas in the northwest opted for separation, leading to the formation of Pakistan. A vote was conducted among the British Indian provinces either through elected representatives or plebiscite. Princely states also made decisions to join either India or Pakistan depending on territorial boundaries demarcated by the new partition line. Punjab and Bengal were distinctly partitioned. The countries achieved independence in August 1947, with Burma and Ceylon following suit in early 1948.
In India, the initial experience of independence proved tumultuous. A significant part of the subcontinent sought to maintain unity under Nehru and the Indian National Congress’s guidance. However, internal strife and inadequate collaboration between Congress and Jinnah’s Muslim League compelled the Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, to proceed with the partition on August 14th, 1947, leading to the formation of Pakistan (comprised of two parts). The future of around 500 princely states rested upon their rulers’ choices, leading them either toward India or Pakistan based on the new partition lines.
Both nations faced immediate challenges in establishing their borders, particularly in Punjab and Bengal, where populations were ethnically diverse. The border lines often disrupted communities, leading to violent riots, with death tolls surpassing one million as communal tensions erupted. The exodus was significant, with approximately 7.5 million Muslim refugees moving to Pakistan and about 10 million Hindus and Sikhs fleeing in the opposite direction. The partition also led to substantial violence in Bengal, claiming approximately 500,000 lives. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, President of the Muslim League, became Pakistan’s first governor-general. The state originally included the western provinces: Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab, and North-West Frontier (West Pakistan). Separating these was the eastern territory of Bengal (East Pakistan) which also became a part of Pakistan.
Alongside resettlement challenges, authorities were tasked with incorporating over 500 princely states, most of which rapidly acceded to either India or Pakistan. Hyderabad resisted but was eventually annexed by security forces. The ruler of Kashmir hesitated, leading to incursions by tribesmen from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province. The Maharaja acceded to India, contingent upon a plebiscite that would allow for Kashmiris to voice their preference, which further escalated tensions as Pakistan supported the invading tribespeople. Mediation from the UN stabilized the situation in 1949.
From its inception, Pakistan confronted myriad challenges. One of the most pressing was the massive migration of approximately 17.5 million individuals resulting from the partition of British India into separate Hindu and Muslim states. Additionally, wars over Kashmir ensued, fostering ongoing hostility with India, which has led to three significant Indo-Pakistani Wars.
Compounding these difficulties were the internal tensions between the East Pakistani majority and the upper echelons of West Pakistan, which dominated administration and military appointments. The absence of a historical framework for a cohesive state further complicated matters. While East Pakistan maintained relative homogeneity, West Pakistan was characterized by diverse economies, ethnicities, and varying levels of religious observance. Some tribes along the North-West Frontier adhered closely to Islam, whereas Punjab housed a more secular elite integrated into the British colonial framework.
Contemporary History of Pakistan Since 1947 Until 9/11
The quest for a compromise that would yield a stable and constitutional state has plagued Pakistan throughout its history. For years, the nation operated under the 1935 Government of India Act until 1956. Efforts to establish a liberal constitution met resistance from fundamentalist factions, culminating in the assassination of Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan in 1951 by an Afghan assailant. A state of emergency was declared in 1954, ushering in a new constitution in 1956. However, this political framework proved insufficient to stabilize the nation, leading to Ayub Khan’s army coup in 1958. Despite an initial intention to promote a multiparty system, failure ensued, and martial law was imposed.
Ayub Khan’s decade-long rule stimulated economic growth, albeit ultimately fueling resentment. The geographical separation of the two wings of Pakistan, spanning around a thousand kilometers of Indian territory, exacerbated grievances. The perception of unfair resource allocation fostered calls for autonomy from the Awami League, led by Mujibur Rahman. The subsequent civil war in 1971 resulted in a decisive defeat for the Pakistani army, bolstered by Indian intervention, resulting in Bangladesh’s independence.
In 1965, Pakistan attempted to infiltrate troops into Kashmir, leading to conflict with India. Despite some gains on the battlefield, a peace agreement reached in Tashkent restored the pre-war status quo. This costly war, alongside growing domestic challenges, precipitated Ayub Khan’s resignation in 1969. Relations with India deteriorated further amid the violent repression of East Pakistani autonomy demands by President Yahya Khan, resulting in roughly 10 million refugees crossing into India.
The first general democratic elections in 1970 saw Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the Pakistan People’s Party leader, come to power although the Awami League won the elections in East Pakistan. Disregarding the election outcome, West Pakistani leadership invoked military force to establish control, inciting a vicious civil war that culminated in Indian military intervention in December 1971 supporting Bangladeshi independence. Following the turmoil, Bhutto established a populist socialist regime that sought to address economic challenges exacerbated by the 1973 oil crisis. His reforms, however, fell short, leading to a military coup in 1977 led by Zia-ul-Haq, who later executed Bhutto.
Zia stabilized relations with the United States during the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, providing refuge to millions of Afghan refugees and facilitating military support for Afghan guerrillas. The resulting cooperation fueled economic growth in the 1980s. Zia’s death in a plane crash in 1988 paved the way for a return to democracy. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s daughter, Benazir Bhutto, won the 1988 elections but struggled with control issues and was dismissed in 1990 over corruption allegations. She returned to power in 1993 but confronted rampant crime and challenges from assertive provinces and tribes.
Benazir faced further dismissal in 1996, with Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif’s Islamic Democratic Alliance later gaining power. He attempted constitutional amendments to consolidate his position before seeking to implement Islamic law—a move that prompted widespread protests amid economic decline. His decision to withdraw troops from Kashmir and dismiss General Musharraf led to a successful coup in 1999. Musharraf then suspended the constitution and imposed military oversight on political and judicial processes while working to stabilize the economy to meet international creditor demands.
Musharraf’s administration became more liberal post-9/11, allied with the U.S. in its War on Terror, which yielded substantial foreign policy advantages and much-needed international loans. Nevertheless, his alignment with the U.S. invited criticism from fundamentalists in Pakistan, necessitating a more moderate approach towards militant groups in Kashmir. In response to India’s nuclear advancements, Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear tests in 1998.
Throughout its contemporary history, Pakistan has navigated political volatility alongside ethnic violence and economic challenges. While private-sector growth in industry has progressed, it has been accompanied by rising unemployment, leaving around 70% of the population reliant on agriculture. Both Pakistan and India have aimed for agricultural self-sufficiency, leading to modest growth yet persistent undernourishment among roughly 40% of rural residents due to insufficient income.
From 1947 to 1971, three major Indo-Pakistani Wars transpired: the first (1947-1948), the second (September 1st-23rd, 1965), and the third (December 3rd-16th, 1971). These conflicts stemmed from unresolved disputes, notably concerning border territories, following the British partition. The 1971 war resulted in Pakistan losing its eastern regions, culminating in the formation of Bangladesh and altering the regional power balance in favor of India. The Kashmir conflict remains a contentious issue between Pakistan and India to this day.
© Vladislav B. Sotirovic 2025
