In light of the recent exaggerations surrounding the election of New York City’s new mayor, Zohran Mamdani, the discussion turns to the realities of past revolutions, particularly the ones in Russia. While many are familiar with this history, a reminder of the socialist roots of Lenin and the Bolsheviks is pertinent. Their commitment to the welfare of industrial laborers and the implementation of land redistribution among peasants were instrumental in retaining power amid upheaval.
Numerous comprehensive histories delve into this era, touching on the influence of the Great War and economic turmoil on these monumental changes. Readers are encouraged to share additional insights in the comments.
By Dr. Vladislav B. Sotirovic, Ex-University Professor, Research Fellow at Centre for Geostrategic Studies, Belgrade, Serbia
Russia in the Great War
The two revolutions of 1917 in Russia, known as the February and October Revolutions, unfolded during World War I, while Russia was aligned with the Entente powers, including France and Great Britain, as well as its ally, the Kingdom of Serbia. Tsarist Russia entered the war in 1914, driven by moral imperatives to defend Serbia against German imperialism, even though it was ill-prepared militarily.
Initially enthusiastic, the Russian army faced disillusionment following significant defeats, particularly the harrowing loss at Tannenberg in August 1914. Rapidly, the initial fervor surrounding the war faded as the harsh realities set in.
Opposition to the war was largely limited to the Bolsheviks, who faced accusations of being funded by the Germans. Yet, their leader, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, viewed Russia’s military failures as crucial to achieving the Bolsheviks’ revolutionary aspirations, advocating for a transition away from the Tsarist regime.
February/March Revolution
As the war continued, the Tsarist government struggled to maintain its grip on power. There were growing concerns about a potential separate peace with the Central Powers, which could jeopardize Russia’s position on the Eastern Front. As in World War II, a lack of action on the Western Front questioned the commitment of the Allies to Russia’s cause.
Tsar Nicholas II was dethroned on March 15, 1917, amidst social unrest from aggrieved peasants, aristocrats, and disillusioned soldiers. The resulting provisional government sought to navigate Russia until a formal constitution was established. However, its inability to withdraw from the war ultimately led to its downfall.
The interconnection between land reforms and peace became evident; a significant portion of the population was comprised of soldiers who were also peasant farmers. Any withdrawal from the war would likely result in demands for land redistribution, further weakening the provisional government.
The April demonstrations in 1917 resulted in the collapse of the first provisional government, revealing the rising influence of the Bolsheviks. Lenin’s April Theses called for the transfer of power to the soviets, as discontent grew among the populace regarding the ongoing war.
As demonstrations escalated throughout 1917, the provisional government faced increasing challenges, culminating in armed confrontations in July. Lenin’s temporary exile followed, and Alexander Kerensky rose to power, yet his administration struggled to tackle the nation’s pressing issues.
October/November Revolution
Lenin’s clandestine return on November 7, 1917, catalyzed the armed uprising that ultimately overthrew the Kerensky government. The Bolsheviks seized control with minimal bloodshed, taking the Winter Palace while pro-Kerensky officials fled or were arrested. However, consolidation of power would prove tumultuous as the Bolsheviks faced opposition from both tsarist loyalists and foreign interventionists.
Workers expected a government centered on soviet rule, yet their hopes clashed with the harsh realities of the socialist agenda, which often sidelined the majority peasantry. The Bolsheviks, driven by a limited base, were forced to promise peace and land to garner support.
The ensuing Civil War (1918-1920) saw brutal confrontations between the “Reds” and the opposing “Whites,” as the Bolsheviks struggled to forge a cohesive identity in the face of multiple internal and external conflicts.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918
On March 3, 1918, Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, officially withdrawing Russia from the war but at a steep cost. The treaty resulted in the loss of significant territories, which deepened the schism between the Bolsheviks and their detractors, who labeled them as traitors.
The Russian Civil War escalated following this treaty, with Allied forces intervening and the Bolsheviks forced to rapidly build a military presence—the Red Army—capable of battling various factions both within and outside Russia.
The execution of the Romanov dynasty reflected the severing of ties to the past, symbolizing a radical transformation as the Bolsheviks sought to consolidate their authority amid ongoing civil strife.
The New Post-Revolutionary Soviet Russia
In the aftermath of the Civil War, the new Soviet Russia had to navigate a reality marked by diminished territory and desperate economic conditions. The introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921 exemplified a shift towards a more market-oriented approach, seeking to stabilize the economy and secure peasant support.
Amidst Lenin’s declining health and political maneuverings, Joseph Stalin gradually emerged as the dominant figure in Soviet politics. Despite Lenin’s initial support for Trotsky, Stalin’s political acumen ultimately led to his ascendancy, culminating in a dictatorial regime marked by purges of perceived threats within the Party.
In summary, the revolutions of 1917 not only reshaped Russia’s political landscape but also left a profound impact on the course of global history. The tumultuous transition from empire to a new ideological state set the stage for decades of conflict, political strife, and the emergence of the Soviet Union as a significant force in the 20th century.
© Vladislav B. Sotirovic 2025
